Ever wondered how bad design leads to errors and accidents? Or how a philosophy like Toyota’s Jidoka or methods like Poka-yoke can reduce mistakes and improve systems? Curious about how the principles of human-centered design can lead to better, more intuitive solutions? Dive in to explore these concepts and more, learning how understanding and embracing errors can lead to significant improvements and safer systems.

The Design of Everyday Things

Imagine becoming famous for doors that don’t work right. That’s exactly what happened to the author, Donald Norman, and now confusing doors are often termed "Norman doors." But why should simple things like doors, light switches, and faucets baffle us? The answer lies in design.

Consider a friend of Norman who got trapped in a post office doorway in Europe. The doors were so elegantly designed that it was impossible to tell which side to push or pull. This incident highlights a critical design failure: when discoverability fails, users can’t figure out how to operate even the simplest device.

Design isn’t just about aesthetics; it’s about making things usable and understandable. This principle applies broadly, from everyday objects to complex machinery. For instance, an overly complex washer-dryer left an engineering psychologist too intimidated to use it, while his physician wife memorized a single setting to avoid confusion.

Despite the complexity and variety in design fields—industrial, interaction, and experience design—the goal remains the same: to create functional, enjoyable products. However, many products fail because designers focus more on technology than on human behavior. This is evident in situations like the Three Mile Island nuclear accident, where poor control room design nearly led to disaster. The operators, initially blamed for "human error," were actually victims of poor design.

Human-centered design (HCD) proposes a solution by prioritizing human needs and behaviors. Good design communicates clearly, especially when things go wrong. It uses principles like affordances (what actions are possible) and signifiers (how to perform those actions). For example, a flat plate on a door naturally indicates pushing, while visible hinges show where to pull.

Feedback is another crucial aspect. Poor feedback can be worse than no feedback, leading to frustration and even danger. Imagine a dishwasher that beeps incessantly at 3 a.m. to signal the end of a cycle—annoying and unnecessary!

Conceptual models help users understand how things work. A good model allows users to predict outcomes and troubleshoot issues. My old refrigerator, with confusing controls affecting both compartments, lacked a good conceptual model, making temperature regulation nearly impossible.

Ultimately, the paradox of technology is that while it simplifies life by adding functions, it also complicates life by making devices harder to use. The challenge for designers is to balance these aspects, ensuring that products are not only functional but also enjoyable and easy to use. Great design is a collaborative effort requiring input from multiple disciplines, all focused on the end user’s experience.

Are Poorly Designed Everyday Objects Making Your Life More Complicated?

During a stay in England, Norman and his companions rented a house. One day, their landlady struggled to open a stubborn metal filing cabinet drawer. She tried everything but failed, thinking it was her fault. Norman stepped in, wiggled and banged the drawer, and finally got it open. She apologized for being "bad at mechanical things," but Norman reassured her that it was the cabinet's fault, not hers.

This anecdote highlights the core of human interaction with technology. People often blame themselves when things go wrong, but it's usually a design flaw. This leads to two key concepts: the Gulf of Execution—figuring out how something works, and the Gulf of Evaluation—understanding what happened. Designers must bridge these gulfs using signifiers, constraints, mappings, and feedback.

Human actions follow a cycle of execution and evaluation, often subconsciously. For instance, a skilled driver executes driving tasks effortlessly, whereas a novice must consciously think through each step. This seven-stage action cycle involves forming a goal, planning, specifying actions, performing them, perceiving results, interpreting them, and comparing the outcome with the goal.

Moreover, human behavior is mostly driven by subconscious processes. We often perform tasks without conscious thought, relying on learned patterns and automatic responses. For example, answering simple questions or recalling a friend's phone number happens effortlessly due to overlearning and practice.

Design must cater to three levels of processing: visceral (immediate perception), behavioral (learned skills), and reflective (conscious cognition). Visceral responses are automatic and based on aesthetics. The behavioral level manages learned actions and expectations, while the reflective level deals with deep understanding and long-lasting emotions.

Designing effective products and services requires understanding these levels and ensuring they cater to both subconscious and conscious processes. Good design bridges the gaps in execution and evaluation, making interactions intuitive and satisfying. Ultimately, the goal is to create products that not only function well but also resonate emotionally with users, enhancing their overall experience.

Unraveling the Psychology of Everyday Actions: Bridging Execution and Evaluation through Effective Design

Picture yourself in an amusement park, where the thrill of a roller coaster is perfectly balanced with the reassurance of safety. The ride triggers visceral fear, yet you know, at a reflective level, that you’re secure. This intricate dance of emotions is no accident; it's a masterclass in design, playing on our cognitive and emotional responses.

Think about your daily interactions with technology. A well-designed device fills you with pride and enjoyment, making you feel in control. Conversely, a poorly designed gadget can leave you frustrated, helpless, and even angry. It’s all about how the design aligns with our cognitive processes and expectations.

Consider Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's concept of "flow," a state of complete immersion where time flies by unnoticed. This happens when a task is challenging yet achievable, keeping us engaged without frustration. Successful design taps into this flow, ensuring tasks are neither too easy nor too difficult, but just right to keep us captivated and progressing.

Humans are innate storytellers, always seeking to explain and understand the world around us. We form conceptual models based on our experiences, sometimes leading to erroneous beliefs. Take the common thermostat: Many people mistakenly believe cranking it up will heat a room faster. In reality, most thermostats function as simple on-off switches, unaffected by extreme settings.

This misalignment between user expectations and device functionality often leads to frustration and inefficiency. Imagine a thermostat that communicates clearly, like the Nest thermostat, which not only shows the current and target temperatures but also predicts how long it will take to reach the desired temperature. Such designs help users form accurate conceptual models, reducing frustration and energy waste.

When things go wrong, people tend to blame themselves. This self-blame is rooted in learned helplessness, where repeated failure leads to a belief that one is inherently incapable. Yet, often the fault lies in the design, not the user. Positive psychology shifts the focus from failure to learning experiences. Designers should embrace this mindset, viewing user difficulties as opportunities for improvement.

Good design minimizes errors by providing clear feedback and guiding users through tasks. It anticipates possible mistakes and offers solutions rather than obstacles. For instance, modern systems provide immediate feedback to reassure users that their actions are being processed, preventing repeated, frustrated attempts that can lead to unintended consequences.

In essence, design should accommodate human behavior, not the other way around. Machines should be designed to be user-friendly, with intuitive interfaces that align with human expectations and cognitive processes. By doing so, we can create experiences that not only meet our practical needs but also enhance our emotional well-being, making everyday interactions smoother and more enjoyable.

Can Good Design Enhance Our Emotional Well-being and Everyday Interactions?

A friend once lent Norman his classic Saab and left a note: “To get the key out of the ignition, the car needs to be in reverse.” Without that note, Norman would never have figured it out. This little incident beautifully illustrates how we navigate our daily lives using a mix of "knowledge in the head" and "knowledge in the world."

Every day, we interact with countless objects and services that demand specific actions. Despite often having incomplete or incorrect knowledge, we usually manage just fine by combining what’s in our heads with clues from the world around us. 

Take coins, for example. Psychologists Ray Nickerson and Marilyn Adams found that most people can't accurately recall what common coins look like, yet we use them correctly without issue. This is because behavior doesn’t always require precise internal knowledge; it can be guided by external cues and constraints.

Consider typing. Many people start by hunting and pecking at the keyboard, relying on labeled keys. Over time, they learn key positions and their typing speeds up. Eventually, they might take a typing course to internalize this knowledge, freeing up mental resources for other tasks.

In another example, the introduction of new coins in the US, UK, and France caused confusion because the new coins were too similar in size and appearance to existing ones. People had formed mental models based on the old coins, which weren’t precise enough to distinguish the new ones, leading to mistakes.

The interplay between "knowledge in the head" and "knowledge in the world" is evident in design. Good design minimizes the need for internal knowledge by embedding cues in the world, making it easier to use products correctly. Take stove controls, for example. Poorly designed stoves have controls that don’t logically correspond to the burners, causing confusion and errors. Good design uses natural mappings, where controls are arranged in a way that intuitively matches the burners.

Cultural differences also affect how we perceive and use objects. For instance, remote control buttons for advancing slides might be arranged vertically, but whether the top or bottom button moves the slides forward can depend on one's cultural background and metaphor for time.

In aviation, different cultures and training backgrounds can influence whether pilots prefer an “outside-in” or “inside-out” display for the airplane’s attitude indicator. Both are valid but depend on what is considered the reference point—the airplane or the horizon.

Ultimately, combining knowledge in the head with knowledge in the world, and understanding cultural contexts, leads to better design and usability. This synergy makes us more effective and adaptable in our complex, interconnected world.

Navigating Life: The Interplay of Internal Knowledge and External Cues

How do we figure out how to use something new? By combining knowledge in the world with knowledge in our heads. Knowledge in the world includes perceived affordances, signifiers, mappings, and physical constraints. Knowledge in the head covers conceptual models, cultural, semantic, and logical constraints, and analogies from past experiences.

Take the example of assembling a Lego motorcycle with fifteen pieces. Despite the physical interchangeability of some parts, cultural, semantic, and logical constraints guide you to assemble it correctly without instructions. Constraints are powerful tools in design and come in four types: physical, cultural, semantic, and logical. 

1. Physical Constraints: These limit possible operations based on physical properties. For example, a large peg won’t fit into a small hole.
2. Cultural Constraints: These are rules learned through culture, like knowing how to behave in a restaurant or which side of the road to drive on.
3. Semantic Constraints: These relate to the meaning of situations. For example, a rider on a motorcycle must face forward.
4. Logical Constraints: These are logical relationships that guide actions, like ensuring all pieces fit together with no leftovers.

When designing everyday objects like doors or light switches, clear signifiers and mappings are essential. For instance, doors often require signs to indicate whether to push or pull, which signals a failure in design. Similarly, light switches can be perplexing when there are many of them, lacking clear mappings to the lights they control.

Forcing functions ensure actions happen in the correct order. In cars, for example, a key (or keyless system) must be present to start the vehicle, acting as a form of interlock. Lock-ins prevent premature stopping of an operation, and lockouts prevent entering dangerous areas.

Conventions, a type of cultural constraint, guide behavior in familiar situations. However, changing conventions can be challenging. Consider the case of destination-control elevators, which organize passengers more efficiently but violate established conventions, causing confusion.

Incorporating sound as signifiers can also enhance usability, providing information that might not be visible. For example, the click of a door bolt or the hum of electronics can indicate proper functioning. On the other hand, silence can be problematic, as seen with electric vehicles, which are so quiet they pose a danger to pedestrians. Various solutions are being explored, from adding artificial sounds to standardizing these sounds for safety and brand differentiation.

Even something as simple as a faucet can be complex. Traditional faucets with separate controls for hot and cold water face mapping problems—how to change temperature or flow without affecting the other. Modern single-control faucets aim to solve this but often introduce new confusions due to lack of standardization.

In essence, constraints, signifiers, mappings, and feedback simplify our interactions with everyday objects. However, poor design and lack of standardization can lead to confusion and inefficiency, underscoring the importance of thoughtful design that considers both physical properties and cultural norms.

How Do Design Constraints Guide Us in Using Everyday Objects and New Technologies?

Industrial accidents often get blamed on human error, with estimates suggesting that 75 to 95 percent of these mishaps result from human mistakes. But are people really that incompetent? The answer is no—it's a design problem. When accidents happen frequently, it's clear that the root cause isn't human error but poor system design.

Consider a bridge collapse: engineers investigate and redesign to prevent similar failures. Yet, when human error is blamed for an accident, the response is to punish and retrain individuals, leaving the flawed design unchanged. We expect people to stay alert for hours, follow confusing procedures, or multitask in high-pressure environments, and then we wonder why they make mistakes.

Errors occur for many reasons: the nature of tasks that require unnatural behavior, interruptions, and a flawed attitude toward error. Instead of blaming individuals, we should analyze why errors happen and redesign systems to prevent them. Root cause analysis aims to find the underlying cause of an incident, but it often stops once human error is identified. This is misguided. Just as we question why a machine part broke, we should investigate why a human error occurred and address the contributing factors.

Take the case of the sophisticated F-22 fighter jet crashes. Initially blamed on pilot error, further investigation revealed potential unconsciousness due to oxygen deprivation. The deeper analysis helped identify the real problem, showing that true root cause analysis shouldn't stop at human error.

The "Five Whys" technique, developed by Toyota, emphasizes asking "why" multiple times to uncover the true cause of an incident. For example, in the F-22 crash, asking why the plane crashed leads to questions about pilot unconsciousness, pushing investigators to find the real issue.

Deliberate violations of procedures also lead to accidents. These often result from inappropriate rules that make compliance impossible, rewarding noncompliance when it succeeds but leading to punishment when it fails. In contrast, unintentional errors, like slips and mistakes, stem from flawed goals, plans, or execution.

Errors can be categorized into slips and mistakes. Slips happen when actions don't go as intended, like putting the coffee cup in the refrigerator instead of the milk. Mistakes occur when the wrong goal is set, such as turning an oven to maximum temperature, mistakenly thinking it will heat up faster. Both types of errors can be reduced by good design. Slips can be further divided into action-based slips, like counting "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King" while using a copier due to recent card playing, and memory-lapse slips, like forgetting to turn off the gas burner. 

Designers must ensure that systems account for human limitations and contextual factors. Checklists, for instance, are powerful tools that improve accuracy and reduce errors, especially in complex tasks. In aviation, collaboratively followed checklists have proven their worth, yet other industries resist them, seeing them as questioning professional competence.

Ultimately, understanding and addressing human error involves redesigning systems to accommodate human behavior, rather than blaming individuals. Only then can we create safer, more reliable environments.

Redefining Industrial Accidents: Unmasking System Design Flaws over Human Error

Printed checklists often fail in complex tasks, like aviation, where the order of operations isn’t always linear. For example, checking fuel levels before refueling is complete can lead to skipped steps and memory-lapse errors. Electronic checklists, however, can track skipped items and ensure all steps are completed before marking a task as done.

Errors can often be avoided if detected early, but social pressures discourage people from admitting their mistakes. Many institutions, including hospitals and police, are reluctant to reveal staff errors. However, acknowledging and analyzing errors is crucial for improving systems and reducing future mistakes.

Toyota’s Jidoka philosophy, or “automation with a human touch,” encourages workers to report errors and stop production if necessary. This approach involves repeatedly asking “Why?” to uncover the root cause of a problem and prevent its recurrence. Similarly, Poka-yoke, a method developed by Shigeo Shingo, focuses on error-proofing through simple, intuitive design changes. For instance, adding green dots to keyholes to indicate the correct turning direction can prevent minor but annoying errors.

NASA’s Aviation Safety Reporting System allows pilots to report errors anonymously, leading to numerous safety improvements. Pilots resisted reporting mistakes due to fear of punishment or ridicule, but NASA’s system protects their identity and exempts them from penalties if they self-report minor infractions.

Errors don’t always result in harm if detected quickly. Action slips are usually easy to catch, but memory-lapse slips are harder because there’s no visible action to notice. Mistakes are also challenging to detect since the actions taken are consistent with an incorrect goal. For instance, misinterpreting highway signs can lead to hours of wasted travel time before realizing the error.

Explaining away mistakes is common in accidents. People rationalize anomalies based on past experiences, sometimes leading to disaster. For example, ignoring unusual events that precede major accidents can be catastrophic.

In hindsight, events seem logical and predictable, but foresight is challenging. Stress, high workload, and irrelevant information make it hard to identify critical cues during an incident.

Designing for error involves understanding causes and minimizing their impact. Undo commands, sensibility checks, and making actions reversible are essential strategies. For example, in healthcare, barcode scanning of medications and patient wristbands prevents many errors.

The Swiss Cheese Model by James Reason illustrates that accidents result from multiple failures aligning perfectly. Adding more layers of defense and reducing opportunities for error can prevent accidents.

Resilience engineering focuses on designing systems to handle complexity and recover from failures. Organizations must continually test and improve their procedures and communication to ensure they can respond to problems effectively.

Automation increases efficiency and reduces errors, but when it fails, the impact can be significant. For instance, the grounding of the cruise ship Royal Majesty occurred because the navigation system switched to an inaccurate mode without clear indication.

To design systems that handle errors well, put the necessary knowledge in the environment, use natural constraints, and make actions and outcomes visible. Embracing and understanding errors can lead to significant improvements and safer systems.

Can Embracing and Understanding Errors Lead to Safer Systems and Significant Improvements?

One of the most counterintuitive yet critical rules in consulting is to never solve the problem you're asked to solve. This might sound strange, but often the problem presented is merely a symptom of a deeper issue. This concept is central to design thinking, a process that prioritizes identifying the real problem before jumping to solutions.

Designers, unlike engineers or business people who focus on solving problems, are trained to discover the real issues. They diverge widely—exploring people’s needs, generating numerous ideas—before converging on a solution. This process can seem chaotic but is essential for creating products that fit human needs and capabilities.

A key tool in design thinking is the double-diamond model, which involves diverging to explore the problem, then converging to define it, followed by diverging to explore solutions and converging on the final design. This iterative process, described by the British Design Council, helps ensure designers address the right problem and find the best solution.

Human-centered design (HCD) is another critical aspect of design thinking, emphasizing that products should meet human needs and be understandable, usable, and enjoyable. This process involves four stages: observation, idea generation, prototyping, and testing. Observing people in their natural environments is crucial to understanding their true needs. For instance, observing customers in their daily routines can reveal insights that surveys or focus groups might miss.

Prototyping is vital for testing ideas quickly. A memorable example is the "Wizard of Oz" method, where a human mimics an automated system to understand user interactions before the actual system is built. This method allows designers to refine their ideas based on real user feedback.

Testing, preferably with small groups that reflect the target population, helps identify what works and what doesn’t. Iteration is key—building, testing, and refining prototypes repeatedly ensures the final product meets user needs.

Designers also need to balance various constraints, including cost, efficiency, and usability, often requiring compromises. For instance, developing a universally usable product can be challenging, but focusing on activities rather than individual preferences can help create solutions that work for a broader audience. Apple’s success with the iPod, for example, stemmed from supporting the entire music-listening activity, not just the device itself.

In practice, many companies face challenges in following ideal design processes due to time and budget constraints. Multidisciplinary teams that include representatives from all relevant areas—design, engineering, marketing—can help navigate these challenges effectively.

Ultimately, design is about developing technology for people, balancing technical constraints with the goal of enriching human lives. It’s a complex, rewarding discipline that requires understanding, empathy, and creativity.

Design Thinking: The Art of Identifying and Solving the Real Problem

In the business world, designing products faces many challenges beyond just focusing on human-centered principles. Companies must navigate competitive pressures, costs, and tight schedules. Different needs and demands from various stakeholders lead to necessary compromises.

One major challenge is the phenomenon of "featuritis," where the pressure to add new features to compete can result in overly complicated products. For example, a startup developing innovative cooking equipment found itself needing to quickly adapt as competitors emerged with similar ideas. This competition forces companies to constantly innovate and differentiate themselves, even before their first product hits the market.

Established companies also face their own set of pressures, such as needing to start designing new models before the current ones are even released, often without sufficient customer feedback. The separation between designers and users, sometimes enforced by companies to prevent leaks or preemptive customer withdrawals, complicates the design process.

Featuritis is evident in many products, from simple toys like Lego sets to high-tech gadgets. Over time, products tend to become more complex, driven by customer demands for more features, competitive pressures, and the need to rejuvenate sales in saturated markets. This often leads to "creeping featurism," where products become bloated and harder to use.

Competitive forces often push companies to match and exceed the features of rival products, but this can lead to homogenization, making it hard for any product to stand out. A better strategy might be to focus on unique strengths rather than trying to outmatch competitors on every front. Amazon's Jeff Bezos, for instance, emphasizes a customer-obsessed approach, ignoring competition and traditional marketing in favor of focusing on customer needs.

Technological advancements also drive change, enabling new forms of interaction and communication. Devices like smartphones merge multiple functionalities, from calling and typing to photography and video conferencing, challenging traditional product categories. However, introducing new technologies and getting them accepted can take decades. Innovations often face resistance due to entrenched habits and the slow pace of cultural change.

Take the typewriter's QWERTY keyboard, designed in the 1870s to prevent mechanical jams, yet still in use today despite more efficient layouts like Dvorak. This persistence illustrates the legacy problem, where existing standards inhibit change, even when better options are available.

Innovation comes in two forms: incremental and radical. Incremental innovation involves small, continuous improvements that accumulate over time, while radical innovation introduces entirely new paradigms, often driven by new technologies. Both are essential—incremental changes make things better, while radical innovations can transform lives and industries.

Ultimately, the design process in business must balance the need for innovation with practical constraints, competitive pressures, and the unchanging nature of human needs and capabilities.

Is 'Featuritis' Destroying Innovation and Making Products More Complicated?

The landscape of media is undergoing a profound transformation. Publishing, television, music, and even gaming are merging into new forms of interactive engagement. While we still enjoy books, TV shows, and music, the distribution methods have evolved, demanding industry-wide restructuring. This shift is driven by radical innovations, which, though spectacular, often take decades or even centuries to succeed.

Incremental innovation happens frequently, but true radical change is rare and challenging. Industries ripe for such transformation include education, transportation, medicine, and housing. Although technology changes rapidly, human evolution is slow, and cultural shifts can take decades or centuries. Despite technological advances, fundamental human activities like social interaction, communication, and music remain constant.

Consider how technology affects our daily lives: we now interact with intelligent machines, access vast data sources, and maintain lifelong connections through social networks. Devices respond to our gestures and voices, and artificial intelligence is integrated into everything from thermostats to automobiles. This raises the question: as technology evolves, will people stay the same?

The rise of augmented reality, body-embedded technology, and advanced prosthetics suggests a future where people might become cyborgs, enhanced by artificial devices. Conversely, machines are becoming more human-like, leading to ethical questions about these changes.

The debate over whether technology makes us smarter or stupider is ongoing. While some argue that reliance on technology diminishes our abilities, others believe it frees our minds to focus on more critical tasks. The synergy of human and machine collaboration, as seen in freestyle chess competitions, demonstrates that combined efforts outperform either alone.

Books are also evolving. The future of books may include interactive, multimedia experiences tailored to individual readers. While producing high-quality multimedia content is complex and expensive, the proliferation of amateur content on the internet shows that even simple, rough creations can be valuable.

Design's impact on society is significant, but it comes with ethical responsibilities. The consumer culture often prioritizes style over substance, leading to wasteful practices. However, the rise of small, efficient tools empowers individuals to innovate and create, potentially leading to a renaissance of talent and creativity.

In this rapidly changing world, some principles remain constant. Human beings are inherently social, and the fundamental principles of design—discoverability, feedback, affordances, signifiers, mapping, and conceptual models—will always be relevant, even as technologies evolve.

Revolutionizing the Future: The Convergence of Technology, Innovation, and Human Evolution

Navigating everyday objects and technology often reveals a fundamental issue: poor design. Simple items like doors can baffle us due to a lack of discoverability. Effective design isn't just about aesthetics; it's about making things usable and understandable. Human-centered design (HCD) focuses on this by prioritizing human needs and behaviors, employing principles like affordances and signifiers, and ensuring clear feedback.

Errors in design, often misattributed to "human error," highlight the importance of understanding and mitigating the root causes through better design. The Seven Stages of Action, which guide our interactions, emphasize the need for a seamless user experience. Good design should cater to visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels of processing, ensuring that products are not only functional but enjoyable.

The interplay between "knowledge in the head" and "knowledge in the world" is crucial. Good design minimizes the need for internal knowledge by embedding cues in the environment, making it easier to use products correctly. Constraints—physical, cultural, semantic, and logical—help guide user actions effectively.

Human error is often a result of poor design. Understanding different types of errors, such as slips and mistakes, and employing tools like checklists can mitigate these errors. The Swiss Cheese Model illustrates how multiple failures align to cause accidents, and resilient design can help prevent this.

Design thinking involves identifying the real problem before jumping to solutions. The double-diamond model and HCD emphasize observation, idea generation, prototyping, and testing to create user-centered products. Balancing constraints and focusing on activities rather than individual preferences can help overcome challenges.

Featuritis, or creeping featurism, is a common issue driven by competitive pressures. Despite this, fundamental human needs remain constant, and human-centered design principles endure. Radical innovation, though rare, can transform industries, while incremental innovation optimizes within the existing framework.

As technology evolves, it reshapes media, education, transportation, and more. The synergy between human and machine collaboration can enhance our abilities. Design's impact on society comes with ethical responsibilities, emphasizing the need for balance between innovation and sustainability.

Ultimately, the core principles of design—discoverability, feedback, affordances, signifiers, mapping, and conceptual models—remain relevant, ensuring that as technology advances, it continues to enhance our lives.

Home

Trending Books

News & Mags

Relax

Curated

Collections

Key Ideas & Notes

Insights

Highlights & Bookmarks

Listening History

Improve your Career, Health & Life with 15min insights from 9000+ non-fiction books

Key Ideas

#1