Did you know that iconic places like Richmond, Levittown, and Ferguson tell a haunting story of systemic racial segregation in America? How did government policies and societal norms create enduring racial divides? Dive into the untold history of urban development and discover the deep roots of inequality that still shape our cities today.

The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America

In the mid-20th century, Richmond, California, became emblematic of the racial segregation policies that shaped the lives of African Americans across the United States. 

Frank Stevenson, born in 1924 in one of the poorest areas of Louisiana, moved to Richmond during World War II, drawn by the booming shipbuilding industry. Despite the city's liberal reputation, government policies enforced strict racial segregation, pushing black communities into poorly constructed housing near industrial zones while reserving better-built homes for white workers.

Stevenson's journey highlights the barriers faced by African Americans. Like many others, he initially found work in physically demanding roles typically reserved for black men. As the war progressed, workforce shortages forced industries to diversify. After the war, Stevenson secured a position at a Ford assembly plant, thanks in part to union efforts that resisted racial discrimination.

Despite these opportunities, housing remained a critical issue. The federal government funded segregated housing projects, further entrenching racial divisions. Black workers like Stevenson found themselves living in overcrowded, substandard conditions. As white families moved to new suburbs with government-backed mortgages, African Americans were left with few options, often resorting to makeshift homes.

The broader picture was grim: Government policies across the nation created or reinforced segregation, from San Francisco to Detroit. Public housing strategies and urban planning decisions systematically disadvantaged African Americans, fostering ghettos and perpetuating inequality.

The story of Richmond and figures like Frank Stevenson illustrates the enduring impact of these policies. Despite their hard work and contributions, African Americans were systematically marginalized, their communities shaped by decisions made far beyond their control. This legacy of segregation underscores the challenges that persist in addressing racial inequality in America today.

Did Government Policies in Mid-20th Century Cement Racial Segregation?

In the early 20th century, America saw a troubling rollback in racial integration, marked by a shift towards segregation, particularly in housing. The legacy of racial zoning in cities like St. Louis and Baltimore illustrates a coordinated effort to separate communities by race. 

After the Civil War, African Americans initially found some peace and prosperity across the U.S. However, as the Reconstruction era ended, the rise of Jim Crow laws in the South reintroduced oppressive conditions, forcing many African Americans to flee northward.

In Montana, African Americans were systematically pushed out of communities where they had once thrived. By 1930, numerous counties had expelled their black residents, a trend mirrored in other states where legal and extralegal measures enforced racial exclusion. Public officials and law enforcement often supported these actions, reflecting a broader national sentiment of racial inferiority.

Federal intervention also played a crucial role in institutionalizing segregation. Under President Woodrow Wilson, segregation was imposed in federal offices, with separate facilities and demotions for black employees. This federal stance on segregation set a precedent that would influence local governments and private sectors.

The Supreme Court's 1917 decision in Buchanan v. Warley struck down racial zoning laws, but cities found ways to circumvent it by implementing economic zoning policies that favored single-family homes, effectively excluding African Americans. This exclusion was further entrenched by federal housing policies. 

The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Veterans Administration (VA) adopted guidelines preventing black families from accessing suburban housing, a practice that severely limited African American homeownership and wealth accumulation.

The segregation was not just a southern phenomenon; it extended nationwide, reinforced by federal programs and policies. For instance, in the aftermath of the 1941 Detroit housing discrimination case, a physical wall was built to separate black and white neighborhoods, a stark symbol of enforced segregation.

In St. Louis, zoning laws were manipulated to keep black families away from white neighborhoods, often by designating African American areas as industrial zones, which led to overcrowded and deteriorated living conditions. This zoning manipulation wasn't unique to St. Louis; it was a common practice across the nation, reinforcing the racial divide.

The government's role in fostering segregation was substantial, with policies that favored white homeowners and systematically excluded African Americans from suburban developments. This legacy of segregation has had long-lasting effects on American society, contributing to the racial and economic disparities seen today. 

The story of Pam Harris' family, who fled racial violence in South Carolina only to face housing discrimination in the North, exemplifies the persistent barriers African Americans faced in seeking equal opportunities.

In short, residential segregation in America was not an accident but the result of deliberate policies by local and federal governments, leaving a lasting impact on the racial landscape of U.S. cities. This history serves as a reminder of the importance of addressing the structural inequalities that continue to affect African American communities.

Woodrow Wilson's Segregation: A Deep Dive into America's Racial Divide

In 1949 Daly City, California, the FHA played a pivotal role in the construction of racially segregated neighborhoods like Westlake. Before this, many urban areas were already racially exclusive, using deeds that prohibited sales to African Americans. 

These restrictive covenants, thought to enhance property values, were seen as private agreements, skirting constitutional issues. The Supreme Court, however, decided in 1948 that such racially discriminatory deeds could not rely on government enforcement, though the FHA found ways to circumvent this ruling, maintaining segregation for years.

From Brookline, Massachusetts, to Kansas City, Missouri, and Seattle, Washington, racial covenants were widespread. These agreements, often backed by neighborhood associations, barred African Americans from buying homes, except as live-in domestic workers. Cities like Chicago and Detroit saw hundreds of neighborhood associations enforcing these covenants. Even notable developers like J.C. Nichols used them in massive projects, cementing racial segregation.

Government entities, from local to federal levels, actively supported these covenants. In Baltimore, a Committee on Segregation facilitated such agreements, while Culver City, Los Angeles, even instructed air raid wardens to circulate them. The federal government, under Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt, fully endorsed these practices. The FHA required racially restrictive language in deeds for federally insured mortgages, ensuring that new developments remained white-only.

Despite a landmark Supreme Court ruling in Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) against enforcing these covenants, the FHA and other federal agencies resisted change. FHA Commissioner Richards famously stated that the ruling would not alter FHA programs. It wasn't until President Kennedy's executive order in 1962 that the FHA ceased financing developments that openly discriminated against African American buyers.

Simultaneously, the FHA's policies fueled blockbusting, where speculators exploited racial fears, leading to white flight and neighborhood decline. African Americans, denied mortgages, often bought homes on installment plans, risking eviction without equity. This created overcrowded conditions, deteriorating schools, and rising crime, confirming white fears and driving further segregation.

Ultimately, these practices were rooted in federal policy, which, along with real estate and banking sectors, perpetuated economic and racial divides in American housing. The narrative of racially restrictive covenants and their enforcement reveals a troubling legacy of institutionalized segregation, one that shaped the American urban landscape dramatically.

How Did The FHA's Housing Policies Shape America's Racial Segregation?

In the complex tapestry of America's urban development, government policies and systemic practices have often played a pivotal role in shaping racial segregation. During the mid-20th century, federal agencies like the IRS and regulatory bodies turned a blind eye as institutions promoting segregation were granted tax-exempt status. 

Churches, universities, and real estate boards frequently led efforts to maintain segregated neighborhoods, often supported by discriminatory policies of banks and insurance companies. For instance, the IRS, despite its regulations against discrimination, rarely acted against organizations that blatantly promoted segregation. The IRS only began revoking tax exemptions from discriminatory organizations under court pressure, as seen in the case of Bob Jones University.

In the housing market, banks and insurance companies like Metropolitan Life were complicit in segregating housing projects, such as the Parkchester and Stuyvesant Town complexes in New York, which were explicitly for "whites only." Even after public outcry and legislative changes, the impact of these policies persisted, with African American families often forced into less desirable, racially isolated neighborhoods.

Local governments also played their part. In places like Milpitas, California, creative and persistent efforts were made to prevent African Americans from accessing housing, often by manipulating zoning laws or increasing utility fees. In Chicago, projects like Sunnyhills faced fierce resistance and legal hurdles before eventually becoming an integrated community, albeit after significant delays and financial strain.

Moreover, the construction of highways was strategically used to displace African American communities, under the guise of "slum clearance." This practice not only destroyed homes but also reinforced segregation by creating physical barriers and limiting access to integrated neighborhoods. Cities like Miami and Detroit saw significant African American populations uprooted to make way for infrastructure projects benefiting white suburbanites.

Even school placement decisions were employed as a tool of segregation, particularly in the Southern states, where schools for black children were deliberately situated in designated African American neighborhoods. This forced families to relocate if they wanted their children to receive education, thereby reinforcing racial boundaries.

These stories highlight the multifaceted and systemic nature of segregation in the United States, driven by a combination of federal, state, and local policies, all contributing to the enduring racial divides in American cities.

Unmasking America's Segregation: From Bob Jones University to Urban Highways

In 1954, Levittown, Pennsylvania, witnessed a frenzied mob harassing the first African American family to move into the all-white community. This was not an isolated incident. 

Across the U.S., African American families like the Garys in California and the Myers in Pennsylvania faced relentless hostility when they tried to integrate into white suburbs. The Garys were met with brick-throwing mobs and had to rely on the NAACP and civil rights groups for protection, as local law enforcement stood by. Similarly, the Myers family in Levittown endured months of harassment, with no effective police intervention.

This pattern of violence was common nationwide, revealing a broader landscape of state-sanctioned segregation. Across cities like Chicago and Detroit, African Americans faced arson, bombings, and mob violence, often with police indifference or complicity. In Chicago alone, 58 firebombings between 1917 and 1921 targeted African Americans moving into white neighborhoods, with no arrests made.

These acts were part of a systemic effort to maintain racial segregation, supported by discriminatory policies. African Americans were often blocked from higher-wage jobs and excluded from labor unions, as seen during the New Deal era when programs like the NRA and CCC systematically marginalized black workers. Even during World War II, defense industries, despite desperate labor shortages, initially resisted employing African Americans, and when they did, it was often in the lowest-paid, lowest-skilled jobs.

In Louisville, Kentucky, the Wades, an African American family, experienced their house being dynamited, with local officials doing little to bring the perpetrators to justice. Instead, those who helped the Wades were charged with "sedition."

The economic impact of segregation was profound. African Americans were often forced to pay higher rents due to limited housing options, a situation exacerbated by discriminatory property assessments that taxed them more heavily than white homeowners. This, combined with systemic wage suppression, made accumulating wealth and moving to middle-class neighborhoods nearly impossible.

These stories reveal not just isolated incidents but a pattern of de jure segregation, deeply embedded in government policy and societal norms. The perseverance of families like the Garys, Myers, and Wades highlights a relentless struggle against institutionalized racism, a struggle that shaped the fight for civil rights and equality in America.

Could the Garys' Struggle Against Racism Transform America's Suburbs?

In 1947, St. Louis demolished an African American neighborhood for the Gateway Arch, displacing residents to areas like Ferguson. From 1957 to 1968, civil rights laws were passed to combat racial discrimination, but housing segregation persisted. 

Unlike other forms of segregation, dismantling housing segregation involves reversing past policies that seem irreversible. Kennedy's 1962 executive order and Johnson's failed 1966 housing bill highlighted the complexities of ending housing discrimination. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 was a landmark, yet fifty years on, its impact seems limited as government policies of the past still dictate today's racial landscape.

While other civil rights laws have mostly succeeded, housing remains a challenge due to economic disparities rooted in historical discrimination. African Americans missed out on post-war suburb growth, leading to a wealth gap that perpetuates segregation. 

By the time labor market discrimination lessened, suburban homes had become unaffordable for many African American families. Policies like the federal tax code's mortgage interest deduction further entrenched these divides, benefiting white homeowners more.

The struggle extends into education, where school segregation mirrors neighborhood segregation. In 1970, African American students attended schools with a higher percentage of white students than they do today. Residential segregation hinders school integration, with busing being the main tool for creating integrated schools due to segregated neighborhoods.

Economic mobility also lags for African Americans. Despite progress in the mid-twentieth century, African Americans remain less likely to move up the economic ladder compared to whites. With median black household wealth far below white counterparts, the wealth gap is a stark reminder of past policies' enduring impacts.

Efforts like Low-Income Housing Tax Credits and Section 8 vouchers have inadvertently reinforced segregation by concentrating developments in minority areas. The 2015 Supreme Court ruling in the Inclusive Communities Project case acknowledged these impacts but left room for interpretation, limiting its desegregation potential. 

The cycle of poverty and segregation continues, as illustrated by places like Ferguson, Missouri, highlighting the need for bold, corrective policies to dismantle the structural legacies of segregation.

Legacy of Segregation: From Gateway Arch to Ferguson's Ongoing Struggle

In 2016, attorney Elizabeth Julian successfully challenged HUD and Dallas for intentional discrimination, helping Bernestine Williams move to an integrated neighborhood in Plano, Texas, where she raised two college-bound children. This case highlights the pervasive issue of segregation in America, which burdens not only African Americans but the entire nation. Segregation fuels political and social conflicts, undermines productivity, and perpetuates racial inequalities.

Research shows that segregation fosters a false sense of superiority among whites, leading to less creative and error-prone groups. It also hinders African American children's educational opportunities, exacerbating the challenges they face. Remedies to address nearly a century of de jure segregation require complex and precise strategies. Yet, progress is hindered by the widespread belief in the myth of de facto segregation—segregation by private choice rather than government action.

In 2015, the Obama administration introduced a rule to enforce the Fair Housing Act, urging communities to assess and address segregation. However, political resistance and misconceptions about segregation's origins limit the effectiveness of such policies.

Historically, HUD Secretary George Romney attempted to promote integration by withholding funds from suburbs that didn't revise exclusionary zoning laws. However, political backlash curtailed this initiative. Today, many Americans remain unaware of the government's role in creating segregation, impeding meaningful reform.

Efforts to dismantle segregation must include educational reforms to teach accurate history, enabling future generations to make informed decisions. Additionally, programs like those in Baltimore and Dallas support low-income families moving to integrated neighborhoods, but they are limited in scope.

Legislation to promote fair housing and integration, such as banning exclusionary zoning and revising tax codes, could drive progress. Inclusionary zoning laws, like those in Montgomery County, Maryland, demonstrate success, showing higher achievement among low-income students in integrated schools.

The persistence of segregation requires a broad societal commitment to rectify historical injustices. By acknowledging government action as the root cause, we can begin to dismantle the barriers that perpetuate racial inequality and work towards a more integrated and equitable society.

Can Segregation Be Dismantled by Acknowledging Government's Role?

Reflecting on the historical trajectory of racial segregation in America, it becomes clear that systemic barriers were deliberately constructed through government policies. These policies entrenched segregation, particularly in housing, creating long-lasting disparities that African American communities still contend with today. 

The federal and local governments played significant roles in enforcing segregation through zoning laws, housing projects, and restrictive covenants, effectively marginalizing African Americans and limiting their economic mobility and access to quality housing and education.

Despite civil rights advancements, the legacy of these segregation policies continues to manifest in economic disparities and segregated neighborhoods. The wealth gap between African Americans and whites is a direct consequence of missed opportunities for homeownership and wealth accumulation during crucial post-war periods. 

Efforts to address these inequities, such as low-income housing credits and Section 8 vouchers, have often inadvertently reinforced segregation by concentrating developments in minority areas.

The notion of de facto segregation, which suggests segregation arises from private choices rather than government action, undermines the recognition of governmental responsibility in creating these divides. This misconception impedes the development of effective policies aimed at dismantling structural inequalities. 

Comprehensive strategies are necessary to address the entrenched segregation, including educational reforms that accurately convey the history of segregation, legislative action to promote fair housing, and integration initiatives that encourage diverse communities.

Ultimately, the persistence of segregation calls for a collective commitment to rectify historical injustices and foster a more integrated and equitable society. Recognizing the government's role in perpetuating segregation is essential to dismantling the barriers that continue to perpetuate racial inequality and hinder progress toward a truly inclusive America.

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The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America

Richard Rothstein

8 Key ideas

25 MINS

4.9 (2.3k)

Did you know that iconic places like Richmond, Levittown, and Ferguson tell a haunting story of systemic racial segregation in America?

How did government policies and societal norms create enduring racial divides?

Dive into the untold history of urban development and discover the deep roots of inequality that still shape our cities today.